Mechanisms of person’s perception by person and mutual understanding in the process of communication

Perceptual side of communication

When studying problems related to the perceptual side of communication, people sometimes talk about social perception.
Social perception should be understood as people’s perception, understanding and assessment of social objects (other people, themselves, groups, other social communities). This is a broader concept than the concept of “interpersonal perception”. In the latter case, the term-concept “social perception” is narrowed and identified with interpersonal perception. In this work, this narrower meaning of the concept of the perceptual side of communication is taken as the basis.

Outstanding Russian psychologists B. G. Ananyev and V. N. Myasishchev, in their works devoted to people’s knowledge of each other, clearly identified three components that every researcher must keep in mind when developing communication problems:

1) people getting to know each other;

2) their emotional relationship to each other;

3) mutual understanding of communication partners.

The development of these theoretical positions on communication problems was continued by their students and followers (A. A. Bodalev, G. M. Andreeva, A. V. Petrovsky, etc.).

Thus, when interacting in joint activities, mutual understanding is important, i.e., the perception of a person by a person and the study of the characteristics of interpersonal perception. The impression that arises when a person is perceived plays an important regulatory role in communication. Based on a person’s perception of a person, an idea of ​​the intentions, thoughts, abilities, emotions, and attitudes of a communication partner is formed. This process in interpersonal perception is carried out from two sides: each of the communication partners likens itself to the other. Consequently, when people interact in joint activities, not only the needs, motives and attitudes of one person, but also all people participating in communication must be taken into account. In addition, the third dimension of “I” (I++) should be taken into account, i.e. how your communication partner sees you.

Effects of Interpersonal Perception

1. Concept and types of social perception. Specifics of the analysis of perceptual processes in social psychology.

Social perception is perception aimed at creating an idea of ​​oneself, other people, social groups and social phenomena.

The specificity of the analysis of perceptual processes is that a person’s impression of another person/group is influenced by many different factors: psychological and physiological indicators, various psychological characteristics of the subject of perception, as well as norms of public opinion and morality.

Specifically in social psychology, the study of perceptual special emphasis is placed on the belonging of the subject and object of perception to any social group; Thus, social psychology considers perception from the point of view of belonging of the subject and object of perception to different social networks. groups.

2. Effects, phenomena and mechanisms of interpersonal perception.

Mechanisms:

• Reflection – self-perception

• Identification – attributing the qualities of another person or social group to the object of perception.

• Causal attribution is a phenomenon of interpersonal perception. It consists of interpreting, attributing reasons for another person’s actions in conditions of a lack of information about the actual reasons for his actions.

Phenomena and effects (some inaccuracies/errors/features of perception):

Effects of stereotyping:

• Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown traits.

• Sequence Effects:

• Primacy effect (first impression effect, familiarity effect) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the subsequent one.

• The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given more importance than all the information received about him previously.

• Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personality trait.

• The effect of presence - the better a person knows something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.

• Expectation effect - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.

Interaction
is
a side of communication that reflects the mental processes of interaction between people.

Social functions of interaction – organizing (managing), regulating,

assessing, stabilizing and educating.

The last function of interaction is related to the possibilities of positive influence on the individual (for example, the influence of the group leader on the individual). Communication as social perception

Social perception –

This is a socio-psychological process of establishing contacts between people, realized through people’s perception and understanding of each other.

The perceptual side includes the basic laws of social perception:

1) “Halo effect” (first impression) – the formation of an evaluative impression of a person in conditions of a lack of information; formation of positive or negative personal bias; 2) the “freshness” effect – an overestimation of recent events in time; 3) “projection effect” - the cognizing subject “invests” his states into another person, attributing to her traits that in reality the person being assessed may not have; 4) “the effect of personification of friends and strangers” is a favorable assessment of the personal qualities of a communication partner from one’s own group and a negative perception of a communication partner from an out-group; and etc.

The perceptual side of communication is focused on highlighting:

1) the physical appearance of a person: anatomical features, body type, gender, age, race; 2) functional signs: face, facial expressions, gestures, body movements, gait, posture, voice, speech; 3) cultural characteristics (social status appearance): hairstyle, clothing, jewelry, bags, jewelry, etc.

The most important mental structure for the implementation of social perception in communication is its psychological mechanisms - identification, reflection, stereotyping.

1. Identification

– a psychological mechanism of likening the personality of a communication partner to oneself (for example, “husband and wife are one Satan”).

2. Reflection –

a psychological mechanism of social perception that expresses an individual’s awareness of how he himself is perceived by a communication partner (for example, “I know what you think of me”).

Stereotyping –

a procedure for simplified perception and understanding of reality through the use of stereotypes (for example, “there is strength, no need for intelligence”).

Stereotyping in social perception

- this is a psychological mechanism for people’s simplified perception and understanding of each other by bringing them under a standardized image (stereotype).

Its varieties include: halo effect

, that is, a rough generalization, an assessment in black and white; the effect of central tendency, that is, the desire to average (“round”) assessments of observed processes and phenomena.

Stereotypes are a “rough superstructure” tool that allows a person to “save” psychological resources and time. However, with more detailed, deep communication, the social stereotype must give way to mechanisms of more “fine tuning” (identification, reflection, attraction, etc. - see above).

Literature

Porter E. Michael Competitive strategy: Methods of analysis and competitors / Translated from English. – M.: Alpina Business Books, 2005. – 454 p.

Atwater I. I’m listening to you: advice to the manager. M., 1984.

Gisbert B. Guide to negotiations. M., 1996.

Daniel D. Overcoming disagreements. St. Petersburg, 1994.

Carnegie D. How to win friends and influence people. M., 1989.

Cornelius X., Fair S. Everyone can win: how to resolve conflicts.M„

Koren L., Goodman P. The art of bargaining, or All about negotiations. Minsk, 1995.

Labunskaya V. A. Nonverbal behavior.

Rostov n/d., 1986.

Predrag M. How to conduct business conversations. M., 1983.

Rogers E., Agarwala-Rogers R. Communication in organizations. M, 1980.

Gozman L.Ya. Psychology of emotional relationships. - M.: MSU, 1987.

Andreeva G.M. Psychology of social cognition: attributive processes.— M.: Aspect Press.

Rubinshtein S.L. Principles and ways of development of psychology. - M., 1960.

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Mechanisms of person’s perception by person and mutual understanding in the process of communication

The idea of ​​another person is closely related to the level of one’s own self-awareness. Analysis of self-awareness through another person is carried out using two concepts: identification and reflection.

25 pages, 12060 words

016_Man. Its structure. Subtle World

22 NFO “Peace through Culture” For the first year group, No. 016 People. Its structure. Subtle World. The sevenfold structure of man. Sleep is a small death... Preparation for the transition to the Subtle World... Cooperation with the Subtle World. Collaboration with Distant Worlds... “Memento mori...”* What will I do “there”?.. Psychology of out-of-body experiences by Robert Monroe, USA... Literature. They may ask why people don’t...

Decision-making. Task. Convert interests into a final decision

Don't force a ready-made solution. When making your final decision, take into account the interest of your interlocutor. Try not to allow the impression that your interlocutor has given up under your pressure or has moved extremely far from his original positions. Success will be optimal when the interlocutor accepts your proposals because you have gradually convinced him that you are right. RULES FOR CONDUCTING BUSINESS CONVERSATIONS

1. Double interest. Each interlocutor has a dual interest:

a) regarding the substance of the matter discussed in the conversation,

b) regarding your interaction with your partner. In other words, when communicating, people think not only about what is being discussed, but also about how their future relationships will be built and developed. Maintaining good (constructive) relationships is a goal no less important than exchanging information. This is why we often prefer not to discuss certain topics with our loved ones, for fear of ruining our relationship with them.

Psychologists recommend conducting a conversation at each stage in such a way that it contributes to the development of your relationships with subordinates, and does not interfere with them. The problem is that relationships are usually tied to the subject of the conversation, the topic of conversation. That's why:

a) do not make hasty conclusions about the intentions of your interlocutor based on your own fears. In short, don't mistake your own fears for his plans. Your problem is not your partner's fault. Blaming him is the easiest way, even if he is really guilty. Your words, although fair, are usually unproductive. Your attack forces your opponent to become defensive and disagree with what you are communicating;

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Types and features of business conversation. Psychological types of interlocutors

... interlocutor; create a favorable atmosphere for conversation; draw attention to the topic of conversation; arouse the interlocutor's interest. Oddly enough, many conversations ... 4 Types and features of a business conversation ..................................................... 5-7 Psychological types of interlocutors ................................................... 8-12 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….13 List… Therefore, they are recklessly hasty in words and actions, conflict unrestrained, with…

b) listen carefully and show that you heard what was said. Listening is an active process!

c) talk about your interests, what you want. The interlocutor may not be aware of this, and you may not know what his interests are. If you want your interests to be taken into account, you should explain what they are. In this case, the wording must be specific and clear;

d) look forward, not behind. You will achieve your goal faster if you talk about what you want to achieve, rather than about what happened. Instead of arguing with a person about the past, in which nothing can be changed anyway, d2. Attention to your partner.

. If you appear to your partner as an interested listener, this will make both his and your task much easier. For this:

a) accompany your partner’s speech with remarks like: “Yes!”, “I understand you...”, “That’s interesting...”, “Nice to hear that.” If you do this in a relaxed and constructive manner, accompanying your words with appropriate nonverbal cues, such a reaction will create a subconscious desire to speak freely and naturally. It will help express approval, interest, understanding;

b) show a desire to obtain additional facts and clarify the interlocutor’s position, using the phrases: “Please clarify this...”, “Please repeat, please, again...”, “As I understood you...”, “You can correct me if I I’m wrong...", "In other words, you think that...", etc.;

c) address your partner by name (by first name and patronymic) as often and as casually as possible;

d) do not say offensive words - remember the law of the emotional mirror: the nervousness of one interlocutor causes the nervousness of another, anger generates anger, aggression - aggression.

6 pages, 2848 words

Chapter 8 PERCEPTION AND UNDERSTANDING OF A COMMUNICATION PARTNER Priority channels of perception Peculiarities of perception of a person by a person Mechanisms of perception and understanding Is it possible to predict the behavior of a partner Questions Tasks

Nothing is superficial to the deep observer! It's the little things that show character. E. Bulwer-Lytton (English writer and politician of the 19th century) Achieving the desired result in communicating with a partner depends on how much you can anticipate his reaction to your words and actions and build your behavior in connection with this. To do this, obviously, you need to have a correct understanding of your partner and be able to look at the situation from his position. It is important to take into account the character, habits, beliefs, intellectual and cultural level of the interlocutor, and his lifestyle. All this, constituting the inner content of a person, is manifested externally: in his manner of dressing, gait, posture, gestures, facial expression, sound of voice, intonation. Observant people often determine at first glance what kind of person is in front of them, how to behave with him, and what can be expected from him. Such people are said to be insightful. Insight depends on a person’s attentiveness, his knowledge of life, and the power of imagination. Sometimes insight can acquire the sharpness of instinct, as in O. Balzac: “Without neglecting bodily deception, it (insight) unraveled the soul - or rather, it grasped a person’s appearance in such a way that it immediately penetrated into his inner world, it allowed me to live the life of the one to whom it was addressed...” To have a correct idea of ​​a person, you need, firstly, to be able to observe, and secondly, to exclude possible errors of perception. Priority channels of perception As is known, there are three channels for information to enter the human consciousness: 1) visual (external and internal information is a complex of visual images); 2) auditory (information is a complex of sounds); 3) kinesthetic (information is a complex of sensations: gustatory, tactile, olfactory, body sensations). Every person is capable of receiving and processing information using all three channels. But at the same time, as convincingly shown in the theory of neurolinguistic programming1, each of us has one channel through which we primarily perceive, think, and remember. This channel is called priority. They say that each person has his own modality (from the Latin modus - a method, a qualitative characteristic of sensations). In accordance with this, all people can be divided into visual, auditory and kinesthetic learners. By carefully observing your interlocutor, you can determine what type he belongs to. Differences are manifested in the sound of the voice, the characteristics of gestures, the direction of eye movement, the predominant use of certain words, reflecting the modality of the images present in his mind. Using these words, called predicates, it is easiest to determine the type of person. So, for example, an auditory student often inserts in a conversation: “Listen,” “As they say,” “And I’m telling you.” Visual: “Look”, “Don’t you see that...”, “As you can see for yourself”, etc. This is not surprising: after all, an auditory person has auditory images and associations, while a visual person has visual ones. From a kinesthetic learner you can hear: “I feel...”, “I feel cold,” etc. 1 See: Grinder D. Bandler R. From frogs to princes. Neuro-linguistic programming. — Voronezh: NPO “MODEK”, 1994. Recognition of the type of modality of the interlocutor by basic indicators

Rice. 5. Direction of the partner’s gaze (from the observer’s side): B - visual, A - auditory, K - kinesthetic

Determining the interlocutor's modality requires observation and skill. To make it easier to speak the language of your interlocutor, we recommend practicing: one day using visual predicates in your speech, another day - auditory ones, the third - kinesthetic ones. It is also useful to work on developing your channels of perception. Ideally, for a harmonious personality, all of them are equal. Features of the perception of a person by a person Looking at a person, we usually perceive him as a whole. As a rule, different people have different impressions of the same person. It happens that it is difficult to find a criminal because the identikit photographs compiled from the descriptions of witnesses are strikingly different from each other and from the true person. Why is perception subjective? First of all, people have different perception capabilities, which is associated with the characteristics of vision and hearing, natural or trained observation. People also have different priority channels of perception. Perception is influenced by stereotypes (“I know such people”) and previous experience. It is experience that allows us to notice in a person what others sometimes do not pay attention to. The result of perception is significantly influenced by attitude (preliminary information about a person). The experiments described by psychologist A.A. are widely known. Bodalev, in which two groups of students were shown a photograph of the same person, presenting him in different ways: in the first case they said that he was a famous scientist, in the second he was a seasoned criminal. It is interesting to compare impressions in both cases. Here are typical answers: “The look and expression on the scientist’s face indicate that he is intensely and painfully solving some problem,” “This beast wants to understand something,” “A very angry look,” etc. The setting influenced the perception results of about a third of the subjects. Your state at the time of communication with your partner also affects how you perceive him. Irritation, fatigue and even joyful excitement are bad helpers. An upset person sees the world through “black” glasses, a joyful person – through “rose-colored” ones. Your assessment may also be biased due to the fact that you are biased towards your partner. Bad teachers evaluate equally correct answers from their favorite and least favorite students differently. For mothers, their children are the most beautiful. The outstanding poet of antiquity, Lucretius Carus, wrote about men blinded by love: “They will call the big woman majestic, full of dignity, the stutterer chirps sweetly for them, and the dumb one is bashful.”1 1 Lucretius Car. About the nature of things. - M., 1946. P. 273. There is a well-known law of perception , according to which in any object of perception we highlight something important, and everything else serves as the background. The impression of the object as a whole depends on what exactly we consider to be the main thing and what is the background. Different people’s impressions of the same person differ mainly because each person has their own main thing. It is determined by what is important to a person at the moment: his interests, desires, hopes, fears. The perception of a person’s appearance and behavior also depends on the ethical, aesthetic and sociocultural norms and rules learned in childhood and adolescence, ideas about “what is good and what is bad.” Finally, as strange as it may seem at first glance, the perception of another person depends on our idea of ​​ourselves. For example, an insecure boss may perceive the active behavior of a subordinate as a manifestation of a challenge, a threat to his influence. So, the perception of another person depends on our attitudes, our experience and upbringing, our desires and fears, and therefore the observation and perception of another person contains information about ourselves. Knowing that there are reasons leading to bias in perception, you can try to take their influence into account. Based on the above-mentioned features of perception, a business person can be advised to: 1. Develop observation skills, pay attention to all the features of a person’s appearance and psychological make-up. (So ​​that it doesn’t happen later: “I didn’t even notice!”) 2. Strive to get complete information about the person (so as not to speculate). 3. Give as much information as possible about yourself (so that there are no rumors). 4. Speak to your partner in his language (take into account his priority channel of perception). 5. Converse with employees and partners in a convenient place, in a calm environment and in a calm state. 6. Do not be influenced by preliminary information about your partner. 7. Explain your actions. Tell subordinates about your expectations (so that there are no disappointments or complaints). 8. Do not consider your idea of ​​norms of behavior to be the only possible one. 9. Do for others not what you think is necessary, but what they would like you to do for them. Only then will they perceive it positively. 10. Be the way you want to be seen. To make your assessment of your partner objective, try to observe, evaluate and draw conclusions impartially. Mechanisms of perception and understanding The main mechanisms of perception are stereotyping and individualization. They turn on simultaneously, but depending on the communication situation, our inclinations and profession, one or the other works more for us. Stereotyping is a comparison of the image of a given person with existing stereotypes in the mind: images of representatives of various socio-demographic groups, psychological types to which, in our opinion, this person belongs. There are stereotypes about teachers, students, businessmen, old people, teenagers, old bachelors, gypsies, Americans, etc. We assign a person to a group on the basis of what the person and the existing image have in common. Knowing the behavioral characteristics of this group of people, one can to some extent predict the partner’s behavior. Individualization is the perception of a person in all his uniqueness, with all his inherent characteristics. At the same time, we pay attention to the differences between our interlocutor and the representatives of the social group to which he belongs or may belong, to his psychological characteristics. In business communication, both mechanisms are important. Each person belongs to a certain socio-demographic group, psychological type and has his own unique traits. Perception and correct assessment of the general and special inherent in your partner allows you to predict his behavior. When communicating with a partner, we, of course, do not just watch him, but live those minutes together. In the process of communication, people become imbued with each other’s feelings (empathy), are able to reason from the position of another person (reflection), and identify themselves with him (identification). Understanding your partner means imagining how he thinks and how he feels in a given situation. “The main thing where understanding other people begins is the formation in a person of such an orientation in which other people would not stand on the periphery, but certainly in the center of the value system that is developing in him. What will be in this system - a hypertrophied “I” or “you” - this turns out to be not at all indifferent to the manifestation of our ability to penetrate deeply into another person and correctly build relationships with her,” writes A.A. Bodalev in his work “Perception and Understanding of Man by Man.” Is it possible to predict a partner’s behavior The words “I didn’t expect this from him,” unfortunately, can often be heard in business communication. They are usually pronounced with bewilderment and resentment. Still would! Behind them may be a failed deal, an unexpected transfer of an employee to another company, negotiations with competitors and similar unpleasant surprises. Meanwhile, if you ask the “unpredictable” why he did this, from his point of view everything will turn out to be logical and decent. The ability to look at events through the eyes of another person is called decentration. Decentration is “a mechanism for overcoming egocentrism and means transforming one’s own images, concepts and ideas by taking into account the possible points of view of other people”1. Not everyone succeeds in “becoming different” for a while. This ability depends on the emotional makeup of the individual, his inclination to empathy, communication skills, upbringing and life experience. Developed empathy and reflection help decentration. But identifying oneself with another person can do a disservice if this person is not like us. If we put ourselves in the place of another person and expect from him such actions that are characteristic of us, in this case we may face deep (and natural) disappointment. 1 Brief psychological dictionary. - M., 1985. P. 82 Failure to take the position of another person can lead to misunderstanding and conflicts. R. Fisher and G. Ury in the book “The Path to Agreement or Negotiations without Defeat” cite as an example the relationship between the landlady and the tenant. The hostess believes that the student should appreciate her attitude towards him: she takes a small fee for the room and does not interfere in his affairs. She is dissatisfied with the student: in the evenings he has music blaring and she has to be reminded about the rent. The student believes that he pays more than he should and on time, that he is a good guest, since he is always at home in the evenings, and the hostess is a dry and callous woman, since she never asks about anything. He perceives the landlady’s decision to refuse the student an apartment with surprise and indignation. She will be surprised not to hear words of gratitude for her good attitude. To anticipate your partner's behavior, you need to look at the situation through his eyes. When our partner’s behavior cannot be predicted, we are tormented by the question: “Why did he do this?” At the same time, we tend to mistake our fears and concerns for the intentions of the other party. To prevent this from happening, in search of the reason for your partner’s behavior, you need to analyze everything that is known about him, about the situation and the conditions in which he finds himself, and bring in your life experience to help. Errors in predicting a partner’s behavior are mainly caused by the following reasons: 1. We don’t know our partner enough: we judge his character based on one significant action or build his image by presenting only individual traits. 2. We made a mistake in classifying this person as a certain stereotype. 3. We are not mistaken in classifying this person as a given stereotype, but we have the wrong idea about the behavior or character of people in this group. 4. The behavior of this person differs from the behavior of the stereotype due to his individual characteristics, and we did not take this into account. 5. We do not know enough about the situation in which the partner finds himself. 6. We reason according to the scheme: “I would be in his place. acted this way,” instead of imagining what he would do in this situation. Fruitful observation of a partner and understanding him are possible only with a keen interest in this person. “Anyone who has no interest in another person can sleep peacefully - he will never learn to communicate,” noted the famous psychotherapist V. Levi. The world of business is a world of networking in which observant, thoughtful, friendly people thrive. Questions 1. Why sometimes the impression of a person differs from the preliminary idea of ​​him? 2. What needs to be taken into account in order to make a correct prediction of a partner’s behavior? 3. Why is it not easy to look at a situation through your partner’s eyes? Tasks 1. While unobtrusively observing a stranger on the bus, try to imagine his age, profession, marital status, mood. Try to strike up a conversation with him and test your assumptions. 2. What impression do you think you make (by your appearance and behavior)?

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