Interpersonal relationships. Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships

All people are born and live in society. Accordingly, some kind of interaction should arise between members of this society. This interaction is carried out with the help of some tools, such as communication, tactile contact, sexual relations, etc. It is difficult to imagine what people would do without the ability to communicate, how contact would occur, how they would understand each other. For such a tool as a conversation between individuals, even a special term has been introduced: interpersonal communication. So what are interpersonal relationships and the communication process?

Behavior in society is based on communication

What is interpersonal communication

Interpersonal communication is the contact of one person with others, regardless of gender, quality of upbringing, social status, etc. This definition has many derivatives. In order for communication between people to exclude disputes, conflicts, scandals, and misunderstandings, special rules were introduced.

Recently, many have been interested in the intricacies of interpersonal relationships in order to use this knowledge when interacting with people during business negotiations, political discussions, economic solutions to issues, etc. This concept has been studied for quite a long time. It may be impossible in life to communicate with every person according to certain rules, since everyone’s character is different, but it is recommended to adhere to a culture of communication.

Types of relationships in society: social and interpersonal

In numerous articles on Internet sites, interpersonal relationships usually mean any relationship between people, including professional ones. However, recognized experts in the field of social psychology, both domestic (G. M. Andreeva, V. N. Druzhinin, N. N. Obozov, E. V. Andrienko, etc.) and foreign (T. Shibutani, J. Moreno , E. Bern, etc.) take a different position. It seems more correct to me. The essence of this point of view is as follows.

The entire variety of human relationships can be divided into two large groups: social and interpersonal, and they are fundamentally different from each other.

Social relations

They are of a role nature and develop between social roles, and not between specific individuals endowed with individual characteristics and characteristics of the emotional sphere. A role is a functional unit of society, and it is impersonal. That is, the totality of behavioral patterns of the role is in no way connected with a specific person. A person tries on a role like a suit. For example, in a work team there may be the following roles: director, deputy director, sales manager, secretary, system administrator, etc. And the relationships between them are determined by job responsibilities and stereotypes of role behavior.

The family also has its own roles: mother, father, husband, wife, daughter, son, brother, etc. Each role has its own socially defined pattern of behavior, its own functions, rights and responsibilities. They are related to the goals and objectives of a social group, and not to the personal qualities of its individual members.

Therefore, social relations are also not associated with individuals as unique and unrepeatable individuals, because the content of a social role does not change depending on who plays this role. Unless a bright personality colors the role, but does not change it.

Interpersonal relationships

A different matter is the interpersonal relationships that develop between individuals, which therefore differ in a number of features:

• They are based on feelings and emotional assessments by partners of each other.
• Personalities in them appear as unique individuals with their own unique characteristics of character and emotional sphere.
• Interpersonal relationships are formed gradually in the process of interaction between people.
• They are dynamic and can change over time, even to completely opposite ones.

A person can simultaneously act as a subject of both role and interpersonal relationships, and with the same partners. This makes the system of social interactions unusually complex and interesting.

Psychology of Interpersonal Communication

In psychology, 3 types of interpersonal communication are considered:

1. Imperative;
2. Manipulative;
3. Dialogic.

Nonverbal communication - what is it in psychology

The imperative type of communication is also called dictatorial. In this option, one of the individuals exerts psychological pressure on another person in order to achieve a certain goal. In the process of imperative communication, it is possible to completely subjugate the will of the opponent, control over his actions, words, and sometimes even thoughts. The dictator forces the interlocutor to perform specific actions. In the imperative version of communication, interlocutors are called “active” and “passive,” where the first is an authoritarian person, the second is the passive side.

Manipulative communication is the most common interaction between individuals. It involves influencing a person in order to achieve their hidden intentions. Imperative and manipulative communication are very similar in meaning. In both the first and second cases, psychological pressure is exerted on one side to achieve certain goals. What distinguishes them is that with the imperative version, the goals are clearly stated, and the suffering side understands that it is being used, moreover, it itself is ready for this. In the manipulative version, goals are not voiced, all intentions are hidden, the passive side believes that it made the decision itself, and not under the influence of communication with another person.

Note! Most often, manipulative communication destroys trusting relationships built over the years. Therefore, it is recommended to think carefully before using certain qualities of a loved one for your manipulations.

Manipulative communication

The basis of dialogical contact is the equality of the parties.

Fundamentals of Interpersonal Relationships

With social relationships everything is clear. There is a rough script, there are established roles - the performance has begun. They look like a cohesive organism acting in unison - like an “anthill”. In contrast, interpersonal relationships are unpredictable. Even a perfectly cohesive cell that has been formed over the years can be destroyed by someone’s bad mood or any other little thing. You never know what to expect the next day.

And the most amazing thing is that interpersonal relationships are unique. One pair of people may be slightly similar to another: they may go to the same places, drink the same wine, like the same movies. But they are always different - and cannot become reflections of each other.

That is why, when two quarreling couples come to a psychologist, they will be given different prescriptions and given different advice. Simply because there is no universal instruction for building relationships: each case must be considered individually.

Interpersonal relationships are based on two aspects: the nature of interaction and emotions.

Interpersonal communication process with examples

Examples of interpersonal communication can be taken in any area of ​​life. For example, the imperative option is often found in work teams, in relationships between a director and an employee. At the moment when the director gives a hired employee a certain task to complete, a clear example of imperative relations occurs. In this case, the goals are clearly voiced by the leader and accepted without objection by the passive party.

Verbal communication - what is it in psychology

Another example of imperative relations stands out in enterprises associated with military activities, in the army, and at training grounds. As in the previous case, the active side clearly and clearly gives orders, the passive side is obliged to carry them out. The passive party has no right to make claims.

Manipulative examples of relationships include the interaction of partners in business or any business area. Manipulation in propaganda is especially clearly visible, for example, presidential elections in the country. Any party conducts campaigning, i.e. that is, she is trying to influence society through manipulative communication, so that society casts its votes for the leader of this particular party.

Important! Manipulative communication can be used in any area of ​​life. It does not always bring comfort to each of the parties. Manipulation in romantic or family relationships is especially unpleasant, since the main task of one of the personalities in such communication is to use the other as a performer of certain actions. Many psychologists argue that manipulators are unfamiliar with such a feeling as empathy, that they are cynical, deceitful and rather primitive.

Dialogue communication is also very popular nowadays. It can often be found in various self-development schools, psychological trainings, etc. This form of communication should be learned. The initial stage of communication does not always remain in the same form at the final stage. Dialogical communication presupposes a respectful attitude towards the partner, his knowledge, development and thoughts.

Dialogical communication

Interpersonal communication among youth

Often communication among teenagers ends in conflict situations. This happens because socialization among young people is not as well developed as it is among adults, independent people. Adolescents experience both formal and informal conflicts.

Formal conflict communication is communication at school, with teachers. Informal conflicts arise in the family or between individuals connected by friendly relations. At the initial stages, teenagers themselves can resolve such conflicts, but in more complex situations, even parents cannot help. This may mean that you need help from a psychologist. Such conflicts occur in the process of growing up, since it is during puberty that a hormonal imbalance occurs, which provokes unstable behavioral reactions. After the process of personality formation is completed, problems disappear.

Basic postulates of the theory of W. Schutz

The main provisions of the theory were formulated in the form of four postulates.

I. Postulate of Interpersonal Needs

Every individual has three interpersonal needs: inclusion, control and affect. Inclusion, control and affect predict and explain an individual's interpersonal behavior.

II. Postulate of continuity of relations

The observed interpersonal behavior of an adult individual is behavior similar to that which he encountered in his relationships in childhood, primarily with his parents. It arises on the basis of the following principles:

Consistency Principle: If an adult perceives his position in an interpersonal situation as similar to that of his childhood parent-child relationship, then his adult behavior will be consistent with his childhood behavior in relation to parents and other authorities.

Principle of Identification: If an adult perceives his position in an interpersonal situation as similar to the position of his parent in his childhood relationship with him, his adult behavior will correspond to the behavior of the parent (or other authorities) towards him.

III. Postulate of compatibility

If the compatibility of group A is greater than the compatibility of group B, then group A is closer than group B to the level of its optimal functioning.

IV. Group Development Postulate

The formation and development of interpersonal relationships between two or more individuals proceeds in a certain order:

The Principle of Group Integration - From the moment a group comes into being until it begins to disintegrate, the predominant area of ​​interaction is initially inclusion, followed by control and finally affect. This cycle can be repeated.

The principle of group disintegration - in the last stages before the expected disintegration of the group, the predominant areas of interpersonal behavior replace each other in the reverse order: affect, control, inclusion.

Forms of interpersonal communication

Why does a person need communication - what does it give and why is it important to people?

In addition to the types of interpersonal relationships, there are also forms. There are positive forms, which include:

• Love;
• Friendship;
• Proximity;
• Friendly communication;
• Attraction;
• Altruism.

Altruism as a form of interpersonal communication

Neutral forms:

• Indifference;
• Autism;
• Selfishness;
• Conformism.

Negative forms:

• Negativism;
• Dislike;
• Aggression;
• Hatred.

Question 2. Formation and development of personality

MOST PSYCHOLOGISTS NOW AGREE WITH THE THOUGHT THAT A PERSON IS NOT BORN BUT BECOMES A PERSONALITY. HOWEVER, THEIR POINTS OF VIEW ON WHAT LAWS PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT IS SUBJECT TO ARE SIGNIFICANTLY DIFFERENT. THESE

DIFFERENCES CONCERN
:

• UNDERSTANDING THE DRIVING FORCES OF DEVELOPMENT,
• THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIETY AND VARIOUS SOCIAL GROUPS FOR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT,
• REGULARITIES AND STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT,
• THE PRESENCE, SPECIFICITY AND ROLE OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT CRISES IN THIS PROCESS,
• OPPORTUNITIES FOR ACCELERATING THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS AND OTHER ISSUES.

EACH TYPE OF THEORY IS ASSOCIATED WITH ITS SPECIAL VIEW OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT.
IN RECENT DECADES, THERE HAS BEEN AN INCREASING TREND TO AN INTEGRATED, HOLISTIC CONSIDERATION OF PERSONALITY FROM THE POSITION OF DIFFERENT THEORIES AND APPROACHES. ONE OF SUCH CONCEPTS WAS THE THEORY OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST E. ERICKSON, WHOSE MOST SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO THE THEORY OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT IS THE IDENTIFICATION OF 8 LIFE PSYCHOLOGICAL CRISES THAT INEVITABLY COMES IN EVERYONE OH MAN:

1. CRISIS OF TRUST - DISTRUST (DURING THE FIRST YEAR OF LIFE),
2. AUTONOMY AS VERSUS DOUBT AND SHAME (AGE 2 - 3 YEARS OLD),
3. THE APPEARANCE OF INITIATIVE AS AN OPPOSITE TO THE FEELING OF GUILT (APPROXIMATELY FROM 3 TO 6 YEARS),
4. HARDWORK VS. INFERIORITY COMPLEX (AGE 7 TO 12 YEARS OLD),
5. PERSONAL SELF-DETERMINATION IN CONTRAST TO INDIVIDUAL GRAYNESS AND CONFORMISM (FROM 12 TO 18 YEARS OLD),
6. INTIMACY AND SOCIABILITY AS CONTRADICTED TO PERSONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ISOLATION (ABOUT 20 YEARS),
7. CONCERNING THE EDUCATION OF THE NEW GENERATION AS opposed to “SELF-DEPENDENCE” (BETWEEN 30 AND 60 YEARS OLD),
8. SATISFACTION WITH LIFE LIVED AS OPPOSED TO DESPAIR (OVER 60 YEARS OLD).

THE FORMATION OF PERSONALITY IN ERIKSON'S CONCEPT IS UNDERSTANDED AS A CHANGE OF STAGES, AT EACH OF WHICH A QUALITATIVE TRANSFORMATION OF A PERSON'S INNER WORLD OCCURS AND A RADICAL CHANGE IN HIS RELATIONS WITH THE PEOPLE AROUND. AS A RESULT OF THIS, HE AS AN PERSON ACQUIRES SOMETHING NEW, CHARACTERISTIC PARTICULARLY FOR THIS STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT AND WHICH IS RETAINED THROUGHOUT HIM'S WHOLE LIFE.

2 pages, 618 words

Factors of human speech development

Tataris E.V. Most speech researchers focus on its factual side: pronunciation, lexical, grammatical and coherent speech. This is definitely important. But of even greater interest is the study of factors in the process of speech development, those driving forces that are not always noticeable, but play a leading role in it [3]. For the normal development of speech activity it is necessary...

PERSONAL NEW FORMATIONS THEMSELVES, ACCORDING TO ERICKSON, DO NOT ARISE IN AN EMPTY PLACE. THEIR APPEARANCE AT A CERTAIN STAGE IS PREPARED BY THE WHOLE PROCESS OF PREVIOUS PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. NEW IN IT CAN ARISE AND ESTABLISHMENT ONLY WHEN THE APPROPRIATE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL CONDITIONS HAVE ALREADY BEEN CREATED IN THE PAST.

STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO ERICSON:

1. EARLY INFANTRY (FROM BIRTH TO 1 YEAR).
   A CHILD'S DEVELOPMENT IS DETERMINED ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY BY COMMUNICATION WITH HIM BY ADULTS, PRIMARILY THE MOTHER. AT THIS STAGE, THERE MAY ALREADY BE PREREQUISITES FOR THE APPEARANCE OF A DESIRE FOR PEOPLE OR WITHDRAWAL FROM THEM IN THE FUTURE.
2. LATE INFANCY (FROM 1 YEAR TO 3 YEARS).
   DETERMINES THE FORMATION OF PERSONAL QUALITIES IN A CHILD SUCH AS INDEPENDENCE AND SELF-CONFIDENCE. THEIR FORMATION DEPENDS ON THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION WITH ADULTS.
3. EARLY CHILDHOOD (ABOUT 3 - 5 YEARS OLD).
   FORMATION OF CURIOSITY AND ACTIVITY.
4. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (FROM 5 TO 11 YEARS OLD).
   FORMATION OF INITIATIVE AND HARDWORK.
5. PUBERTY, ADOLESCENCE AND YOUTH (FROM 11 TO 20 YEARS).
   LEARNING, FORMATION OF WORLDVIEW, LIFE SELF-DETERMINATION, ACTIVE SEARCH FOR YOURSELF
6. EARLY ADULTITY (FROM 20 TO 45 YEARS).
   DESIRE TO CONTACT WITH PEOPLE. BIRTH AND RAISING CHILDREN, LOVE AND WORK.
7. MIDDLE ADULTITY (FROM 40-45 TO 60 YEARS OLD).
   CREATION. MATURE FULL AND DIVERSE LIFE, TRAINING AND EDUCATION OF A NEW GENERATION
8. LATE ADULTITY (OVER 60 YEARS).
   COMPLETENESS OF LIFE, EVALUATION OF LIFE LIVED, ITS USEFULNESS.

Culture of interpersonal communication

Cultural interpersonal contact assumes that both opponents will feel emotionally, intellectually, mentally and physically comfortable from interacting with each other. In society, there are norms of interpersonal communication, mastery of which will allow interaction to be brought to the cultural level. Since communication affects any area of ​​life, it is important to understand where a serious conversation would be appropriate and where casual chat would be appropriate. Each of these conversations has its own characteristics and requirements. In order to master the culture of interpersonal relationships, they must be properly developed.

Lecture 12. Interpersonal behavior

1. Nature and typology of conflicts.

2. Consequences of conflicts and strategies for resolving them.

3. Assertive behavior and transactional analysis.

1. Nature and typology of conflicts. Organizations, by definition, need employees who have the skills to interact and communicate with each other. Ideally, these types of interpersonal relationships involve productivity, cooperation, and satisfaction among the individuals involved. In a real organization, the ideal most often remains a “bright image”. The forms of human interaction in a group are: cooperation, subordination, merger, conflict. Almost all relationships that arise during the work process sooner or later lead to conflicts. But their nature (constructive or destructive) depends primarily on the attitudes and skills of the parties (as well as on the time and other resources available to them). Let's consider the theoretical concepts of the emergence and resolution of conflicts.

According to R. Tajiuri, conflicts are an integral part of public life. The modern view of conflict in an organization is that it is considered vital for the organization, is an integral part of the process of change, conflicts arise in the process of interaction and communication between individuals. By conflict we understand any situation in which its subjects (two or more) perceive the positions of counterparties as opposite. Conflict is an interpersonal process based on differences between the parties involved regarding goals or methods of achieving them. Interaction based on contradictions is conflicts. Based on real or imaginary contradictions, the interaction of parties pursuing incompatible, mutually exclusive goals, whose actions are directly directed against each other and exclude mutual benefit, is called a conflict. Conflict occurs when the parties disagree on fundamental issues or when emotional antagonism creates friction between them. In a dispute, the parties defend not only different goals, but also specific methods for achieving them (a precedent for a more complex conflict). Conflicts of different interests are inevitable, but in some organizations they grow to “universal” proportions.

The object of conflict is the attitudes and motives of people in the course of their interaction. The main causes of conflict are limited resources, resource allocation, task interdependence, differences in goals, differences in values, differences in behavior, poor communication.

It is obvious that understanding the nature of conflicts and having the skills to resolve them is an integral part of the art of management.

Interpersonal behavior plays a very important role in the activities of managers. Tension in relationships with other people is usually cited as one of the main reasons for the failure of well-reputed managers.

Types of conflicts:

1. Existing conflict is a fundamental disagreement regarding the goals or objectives set, as well as the means of achieving them.

2. Emotional conflict refers to interpersonal problems stemming from feelings of anger, mistrust, hostility, fear, resentment, etc.

Levels of conflict.

1. Intrapersonal conflict - occurs within an individual due to real or perceived pressure from incompatible goals or expectations.

2. Interpersonal conflict - occurs between two or more individuals who are in opposition to each other. Interpersonal conflicts are a serious problem because they have a significant impact on human emotions (primarily in cases where the individual protects his image and self-esteem from discredit). An immediate threat to a person’s self-esteem is fraught with serious conflicts and complications in relationships with other people. Often, the cause of quarrels is the incompatibility of the temperaments of the parties involved in the conflict, ineffective communications, or differences in perceptions or assessments of events.

The causes of interpersonal conflicts are different:

• Organizational changes.

• Personality discrepancies.

— Different value systems.

• Threat to status.

• Contrasting perceptions. Different life experiences and expectations determine our individual perception of existence. Since for each of us perception is almost identical to reality, a person often simply does not allow the thought of the possibility of other views. Even in cases where individuals strive to understand the arguments of their opponents and consider the problem from the positions they defend, the threat of conflict remains.

• Lack of trust. Long-term relationships between individuals and groups presuppose that there is a certain degree of trust between them - the ability to determine their actions, relying on the statements and actions of the other party.

3. Intergroup conflict - occurs between different groups in an organization. Acute conflicts often arise between divisions or departments of an organization, when each party seeks to gain the upper hand in a “fight”, achieve expansion of its zone of influence and power, and improve its own image. The reasons for this kind of clashes are different approaches to problems, loyalty to the group and competition for resources. In a competitive market, each organization is limited in access to the resources necessary for its activities and the directions for their use, which means that the groups operating in it lack funds. The seeds of intergroup conflicts grow wherever resources are limited.

4. Inter-organizational conflict – occurs between organizations.

Role conflict is also identified. The main reason for most role conflicts among employees of organizations is a direct order from their immediate superior or one of the company’s managers that contradicts their views. Much less often, intrapersonal role conflict arises as a result of contradictions in the roles performed by an individual, when, for example, a manager performs the duties of a team leader who is obliged to seek the attraction of additional resources, and at the same time is the official responsible for reducing operating costs.

Some conflicts are constructive. This statement is also true for intergroup interactions, when an open form of conflict and the search for a mutually acceptable solution help eliminate the problem. Until the parties have formulated the problem, it can neither be understood nor analyzed. At the same time, intergroup conflict motivates opposing groups to resolve it and achieve a new state of equilibrium. Adherents of such views insist on the need for periodic artificially inflated conflicts. On the other hand, in certain situations it is necessary to extinguish an unexpectedly flared up conflict in order to prevent consequences that are destructive for the organization. The task of management is to manage conflicts.

The following stages of conflict are distinguished: origin, formation, flourishing, extinction or transformation.

2. Consequences of conflicts and strategies for resolving them.

The positive results of conflicts are that they encourage participants to analyze different paths to a goal and choose the shortest one, to demonstrate constructive approaches and test new ideas, to identify and eliminate problems. Moreover, conflict resolution presupposes increased confidence in the results obtained by those directly involved in their achievement. The negative effects of conflicts are associated with their duration, increased intensity, disruption of cooperation and group work at the interpersonal level. At the individual level, a feeling of personal defeat may arise, self-esteem decreases, and the level of individual stress increases, which causes a decrease in the motivation of some employees. Management must be aware of the possibility of interpersonal and intragroup conflicts, anticipate their results and propose strategies for resolving them.

The sources, directions and speed of development of conflicts are diverse. Contradictions can remain under “ashes” for a long time. And sometimes conflict is like a sudden volcanic eruption. A manager must clearly recognize when he needs to stimulate conflict and when it is time to end it.

The sources of contradictions we have considered predetermine the constructive or destructive nature of the conflict. In the case where contradictions are perceived as destructive, the manager applies a strategy aimed at preventing the conflict from growing, minimizing its negative consequences or localizing it. The parties then evaluate the outcome of the conflict (win or loss).

RESULTS OF THE CONFLICT. Depending on the approaches taken by the parties involved in the conflict, it is customary to distinguish four main results. The first - “lose-lose”, reflects a situation where the development of a conflict leads to a deterioration, in comparison with the initial one, of the situation of the parties involved in it. The second is that one individual is defeated and the other is victorious. In the third “win-lose” case, the opposite situation occurs - the defeat of the second and the victory of the first. The fourth is the result of a win-win conflict in which both sides find themselves in a better position than they were before the conflict began. This result is the most preferable for the organization’s management; it is necessary to focus on its achievement in current relations with suppliers, customers and employees.

Functional conflict leads to positive consequences for the group. Dysfunctional conflict leads to losses at the level of the individual, group or organization.

PARTICIPANTS' ASPIRATIONS. The results of a conflict are determined by the aspirations and strategies of its subjects.

CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES. Conflict resolution occurs when the causes of the conflict are eliminated. Conflict resolution strategies are largely determined by the aspirations of the parties. The choice and implementation of strategy has a significant impact on the results of the conflict. The simplest strategies involve an emphasis on contrasting approaches (either cooperation or confrontation), but the accepted typology assumes the presence of at least four different courses of action (and one combined or compromise strategy), each of which has a predictable outcome.

There are three main conflict management strategies: normative, idealistic, and realistic.

Conflict management methods can be structural or personal.

General principles of conflict management: institutionalization of conflict, legitimization of conflict management procedures, structuring of conflicting groups, reduction.

The following main styles of conflict behavior are distinguished: force, avoidance of conflict, adaptation, compromise, peaceful coexistence, formation of indifference.

Avoidance is a physical or mental withdrawal from a conflict determined by the fact that each party has little interest in its results; This situation often ends in mutual loss.

Accommodation is an attempt to change one’s demands in accordance with the interests of the other party, usually to the detriment of oneself, which determines the result of loss-win.

The forceful approach is a bet on aggressive pressure without taking into account the interests of the opponent. The most likely outcome is win-lose.

Compromise is a search for a middle ground or a desire to give up a number of demands in exchange for certain concessions from the other side. The results are not clearly visible.

Formation of indifference - indifference.

Confrontation - analysis of the main causes of the conflict, joint search for a mutually acceptable solution. Also known as problem solving. The results are win-win.

Only a strategy of confrontation, which involves addressing the main differences in the positions of the parties and eliminating them in the process of creative solution to the problem, can find a solution that is truly satisfactory to all parties.

A Guide to Using the Confrontational Strategy

conflict resolution:

1. Reaching agreement on a common goal for the parties - resolving the conflict.

2. Acceptance by the subjects of the conflict of obligations to show flexibility in the process of finding a solution.

H. Joint analysis by the parties to the conflict of their strengths and weaknesses.

4. Recognition of the need for mutual saving of face.

5. Eliminating the possibility of concealing significant information.

b. Controlling emotions, avoiding pointless discussions and answers - yes, but.

7. Try to take the position of the other party, understand its needs.

8. Do not hesitate to ask questions in cases where you need additional information, try to be understood by your opponent.

9. Make sure all parties are committed to achieving specific goals

results.

10. Once the conflict is resolved, maintain relationships with its participants.

There are other styles of conflict behavior:

1. Avoidance is an attempt to pretend that there really is no conflict.

2. Accommodation or adjustment involves downplaying differences and finding issues on which there is agreement.

3. Compromise implies that each party sacrifices something in favor of the other.

4. Competition is an attempt to achieve victory by force, superiority in skill, or through domination.

5. Authoritarian governance means using formal authority to end conflict.

6. Collaboration involves recognizing that things are not as they should be and that attention needs to be given to solving the problem.

7. Problem solving involves using information to end disputes.

How significant are the differences in approaches to conflict between different social groups or cultures? Conflict researchers note that;

DIVERSITY OF PREFERENCES. Men are adherents of the forceful approach, while women prefer other strategies; managers (and most of them are men) choose the forceful approach, while their subordinates choose withdrawal, softening or compromise; American managers treat opponents as competitors, while Japanese managers prefer cooperation.

In addition, the following trends in the behavior of participants in conflicts are identified. Each side strives to copy the style of its opponents (for example, force is answered with force, an invitation to compromise is followed by consent). Behavioral styles are selected depending on the type of “bones of contention” (for example, evaluating performance results involves confrontation, and differences caused by the habits and manners of individuals involve compromise). Obviously, conflict resolution strategy is largely determined by situational factors (group characteristics such as gender). It is obvious that the parties who used it will evaluate the recent conflict as productive, since the reached solution is beneficial to all participants. In addition, the subjects of the conflict perceive the process of finding a solution as mutually supportive, a way to bring the positions of the parties closer together. Conducted research shows that participants in conflicts evaluate the confrontational approach as the most acceptable, allowing the parties not only to save face, but to discover new positive traits of their opponents.

3. Assertive behavior and transactional analysis. A confrontational conflict resolution strategy requires specific personal qualities of the subjects involved. Faced with the need to negotiate, someone feels the superiority of the other party, a certain dependence, a lack of necessary skills, which leads to an attempt to suppress the manager’s feelings (as part of an exit strategy) or an outburst of anger that is unmotivated from the point of view of others. None of these reactions are productive.

A constructive alternative is assertive behavior. Assertiveness is the process of expressing feelings, proposing legitimate changes, and providing feedback. An assertive individual does not feel awkward when he advises another person to abandon an aggressive style of negotiation, and does not feel uncomfortable when he refuses someone an unreasonable request. Teaching assertive behavior involves familiarizing and mastering effective patterns of behavior in situations that cause anxiety for the individual.

Assertive individuals are direct, honest, and expressive, self-confident, have high self-esteem, and strive to earn the respect of others. In contrast, an aggressive individual is capable of humiliating an opponent, while a non-assertive individual evokes pity among others. Both patterns of behavior are inferior in the effectiveness of movement towards the goal to the assertive one.

Assertive behavior includes five stages. Implementing a strategy of confrontation, an assertive individual strives to objectively describe the causes of the conflict, adequately express his emotions, paying special attention to the position of the other side. He then offers possible solutions to the problem, indicating both positive and negative consequences. Stages of assertive behavior.

Stage

Example

1. Description of behavior. In the event that you do...

2. Expressing your feelings. I feel…

3. Empathy. I understand why you...

4. Proposing an alternative solution. I would advise you to consider another option...

5. Information about the consequences. If you do (do not do) exactly this way, the advisability of using the remaining steps depends on the importance of the problem and the relationship of the parties to the conflict.

Assertive behavior is most effective in cases where both oral and written communications are carried out. Personal, face-to-face contact signifies the sincerity and self-confidence of the individuals involved (in many cultures). Gestures and facial expressions, voice and its modulations are of great importance. Perhaps the most convincing is a spontaneous and expressive response.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS. Regardless of the forms (assertive or non-assertive) of human interactions, we are dealing with social transactions when one individual responds to another. The study of this kind of social exchanges between individuals is the subject of what was developed in the 1950s. psychotherapist Eric Berne of transactional analysis (TA). The task of TA is to study human relationships and propose actions that will strengthen them.

According to E. Berne, when two individuals interact, each party occupies one of the psychological positions defined as ego states. It is customary to distinguish three ego states of an individual - Parent, Adult and Child.

The Parent ego state assumes that the individual is in control of the situation, acts as a protector, patron, educator, critic, a conductor of certain policies and an adherent of standards, encouraging the interlocutor: “You know the rules, Alex. All that remains is to follow them."

The ego state of an Adult is manifested in rational, calculating behavior that does not allow unnecessary emotions. The individual strives to make improvements, processes the data received, evaluates promising opportunities, and takes part in discussing problems.

The ego state of the Child is characterized by spontaneity, dependence, creativity or irascibility, when the individual strives for immediate recognition of his merits and rewards. It is easily identified by emotional reactions (when an employee indignantly declares to his boss: “You always only criticize my actions.”

It is necessary to note three main points of ego states. Firstly, during negotiations, an individual's behavior is often a complex of reactions of the Parent, Adult and Child. Secondly, each of the ego states has both positive and negative features (adding something or negatively affecting the counterparty’s sense of satisfaction). Thirdly, we determine the ego state of the individual, focusing not only on the words and their meaning, but also on the intonation, posture, gestures and facial expression of the interlocutor. Ego states emerge more clearly in one-on-one interactions.

TYPOLOGY OF TRANSACTIONS. Transactions (exchange of words, actions, written messages) can be complementary or non-complementary. Complementary transactions are those carried out in an open exchange of complementary ego states of the sender and recipient.

Non-complementary, or overlapping, transactions are represented by intersecting stimulus and response lines.

The most effective forms of exchange in the labor process are transactions of the Adult to Adult type, since the individuals participating in them behave as rational beings, which means that the likelihood of emotional conflict between them decreases. Complementary transactions are also quite productive, but some of them (for example, manager-employee relationships of the Parent-Child type) limit growth opportunities.

THEORY OF LIFE POSITIONS. The behavior of each individual is a form of expression of his life position. In early childhood, we develop a dominant way of communicating with other people; the desire to maintain “dominant heights” remains with a person throughout his life, until the experience of transactions forces him to change his life position. Thus, each of us has a dominant, but not the only life position. The essence of a life position is formulated as the interaction of two points of view regarding how an individual evaluates himself and how he relates to the people around him. All possible combinations of positive (good) or negative (bad) answers determine the basic life positions:

• I feel bad - you feel good.

• I feel bad - you feel bad.

• I feel good - you feel bad.

• I feel good - you feel good.

The most desirable position is the one that comes closest to the Adult-to-Adult transaction, i.e. good - good for you, since in this case the individual demonstrates a positive attitude towards himself and a respectful attitude towards others. This position contributes to the formation of constructive relationships, productive conflicts and confrontations that satisfy both sides. Other life positions are less effective. Regardless of their own position in life, each manager needs to remember the merits of the position “I’m good - it’s good for you,” since possible appeal to it contributes to the improvement of interpersonal transactions.

APPLICATION OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS. STROKING. In interactions with other people, each person strives to earn a stroke. This term is used to identify any act of recognition by an individual of another person. The most common are verbal.

There are positive, negative and mixed strokes. When an individual receives positive strokes, he is accompanied by positive emotions (the “I feel good” state). Negative strokes hurt physically or emotionally (the feeling of “I feel good” quickly subsides). Mixed stroking - in this case, a Parent to Child transaction takes place, when a negative stroke regarding a lack of experience is intended to demonstrate superiority or punishment for the previous negative stroke on the part of the employee.

The most preferable, in our opinion, are Parent-to-Child transactions (provided that they do not involve punishment) and encouragement for Adult-to-Adult relationships.

In addition, there are conditional and unconditional strokes. Conditional strokes are given to employees whose performance satisfies managers. Unconditional strokes are provided without regard to behavior, but promote the employee's positive mood (“You are a good employee”). However, it is likely that unconditional pats confuse employees because they do not provide guidance on how to increase the number of rewards. The effectiveness of strokes increases significantly in a situation where the manager carries them out with the aim of changing behavior, when the encouragement rewards the desired actions.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION. There are certain relationships between the life positions of individuals identified in TA and their dominant conflict resolution strategies. Thus, the Parent ego state usually determines a forceful approach, while the Child ego state usually determines an avoidance of conflicts or a desire to mitigate them. An individual characterized by the life position “It’s good for me - it’s good for you” is usually a supporter of seeking a win-win result in any conflict, taking the position of an Adult and relying on a confrontational strategy.

ADVANTAGES OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS. Training an organization's employees in the basics of TA allows many of them to gain a deeper understanding of the driving forces of both their own behavior and the reactions and actions of other people in the organization. Workers are able to recognize the occurrence of cross-communications and take steps to restore complementary transactions, preferable in the form of Adult to Adult. The greatest impact of TA training can be obtained in trade and in other areas of activity, in which success is largely determined by the relationships of the organization’s employees with customers.

Topic 5 . Personal development in the organization.

Development of interpersonal communication

The development of communication implies a correct assessment of the interlocutor, which entails the correctly chosen tone in the conversation, an adequate flow of the conversation. The culture of communication is based on a person’s psychological state, his self-esteem, social studies, and the ability to regulate his mood in the process of communication.

Note! In the development of a culture of interpersonal communication, it is very important to be able to feel the interlocutor, his inner mood and state. A very important point in the development of communication is the ability to listen and conduct a dialogue.

Development of interpersonal communication

Question 1. Individual, personality, individuality: the relationship between the volume and content of these concepts.

THE ROOT OR GENERAL ORIGINAL CONCEPT SHOULD BE THE CONCEPT OF “MAN”.

1. HUMAN IS, FIRST OF ALL, A BIOLOGICAL CREATURE, BELONGING TO THE MAMMALS OF THE GENUS HOMO SAPIENS. HUMAN AS A SPECIFIC SPECIES IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE MOST SIGNIFICANT SIGNS, WHICH ARE:

• upright walking,
• THE PRESENCE OF HANDS ADAPTED TO COGNITION AND WORK,
• LARGE SKULL VOLUME WITH HIGHLY DEVELOPED BRAIN.

THE FACT OF BELONGING TO THE HUMAN KIND IS FIXED IN THE CONCEPT OF “INDIVIDUALS”. A MAN IS BORN AN INDIVIDUAL. ANY PERSON (NORMAL, ABNORMAL, SCHIZOPHRENIC, PARANOIC, OLYGOPHRENIC, ETC.) IS ALL EQUALLY CALLED AN INDIVIDUAL.

AN INDIVIDUAL IS THE SUMMARY OF ALL HUMAN QUALITIES CHARACTERISTIC TO PEOPLE, REGARDLESS OF WHETHER THEY ARE PRESENT OR ABSENT IN A GIVEN PARTICULAR PERSON.

INDIVIDUAL PROPERTIES OF A HUMAN ARE DIVIDED INTO 2 CLASSES:

1. AGE AND SEX PROPERTIES:

• AGE FEATURES,
• SEXUAL DIMORPHISM,

1. INDIVIDUAL-TYPICAL PROPERTIES:

• CONSTITUTIONAL FEATURES (BODY FEATURES),
• NEURODYNAMIC PROPERTIES (PECULIARITIES OF NERVOUS PROCESSES),
• HUMAN FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH FUNCTIONAL ASYMMETRY OF THE BRAIN.

THE HIGHEST INTEGRATION OF INDIVIDUAL PROPERTIES ARE TEMPERAMENT AND TENDINGS.

2. THE RESULT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN SOCIETY IS FIXED IN THE CONCEPT OF “PERSONALITY”. AND THE RESULT OF THIS DEVELOPMENT DEPENDS NOT ONLY ON THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT, BUT ALSO ON INDIVIDUAL PROPERTIES (I.E. ON THE ONE HAND, NOT ONLY ADVANTAGES ARE IMPORTANT, BUT TO BE POSSIBLE FOR THEIR DEVELOPMENT. ON THE OTHER HAND, IT IS NOT ENOUGH TO DEAL WITH RE BENCH, FOR EXAMPLE, MUSIC , IT IS NECESSARY THAT HE HAVE THE INDIVIDUAL FOR THIS)

12 pp., 5969 words

Age-related features of the formation of attention properties

... regulators into internal ones, allowing the individual to fully develop. Object of study: properties of attention. Subject of research: features of the formation and development of attention properties during periods of early... the following points: completion of higher education, mastering the role of an adult, obtaining the right to vote, full legal and economic responsibility, formation...

THAT. A PERSONALITY IS AN INDIVIDUAL TAKEN IN THE SYSTEM OF HIS PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS, WHICH ARE SOCIALLY CONDITIONED, MANIFEST IN SOCIAL NATURE CONNECTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS, ARE SUSTAINABLE AND DETERMINE THE CORRECT POINTS OF VIEW OF SOCIETY AH, HUMAN ACTIONS.

WHEN WE TALK ABOUT THE CONCEPT OF “PERSONALITY,” THEN IT IS NECESSARY TO AFFECT TWO IMPORTANT POINTS: THE NEED TO BE AN PERSONALITY AND THE ABILITY TO BE A PERSONALITY.

THE NEED TO BE AN INDIVIDUALS – THIS MEANS BEING AND REMAINING TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT REPRESENTED BY QUALITIES THAT ARE SIGNIFICANT TO YOURSELF IN THE LIFE ACTIVITIES OF OTHER PEOPLE.

THE ABILITY TO BE AN INDIVIDUALS IS REPRESENTED BY THE SET OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITIES THAT ALLOW YOU TO PERFORM ACTS THAT ENSURE THE SATISFACTION OF THE NEED TO BE AN INDIVIDUALS.

SOURCES OF PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT ARE:

• ACTIVITY OF THE PERSON HIMSELF,
• THE CONTRADICTION BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL'S NEED FOR PERSONALIZATION AND THE OBJECTIVE INTEREST OF HIS REFERENCE COMMUNITY IS TO ACCEPT ONLY THOSE MANIFESTATIONS THAT MEET THE NORS AND CONDITIONS OF THE GROUP'S DEVELOPMENT.

3. INDIVIDUALITY
IS NOT SOMETHING OVER-OR SUPERPERSONAL
. INDIVIDUALITY IS A PERSONALITY IN ITS ORIGINALITY. THIS CONCEPT CONTAINS ONLY THOSE INDIVIDUAL AND PERSONAL QUALITIES OF A PERSON, SUCH A COMBINATION OF THEM, WHICH DISTINCTS THIS PERSON FROM OTHER PEOPLE. IN EVERYDAY LIFE, THE ORIGINALITY OF THE PERSON IS IN MIND. MOST OFTEN, THE WORD INDIVIDUALITY EMPHASIZES ANY PROMINENT FEATURE OF A PERSONALITY THAT MAKES HER CONTRASTING, NOT SIMILAR TO OTHERS. INDIVIDUALITY CAN APPEAR IN ANY FIELD OF MENTAL ACTIVITY:

• INTELLECTUAL - THE ABILITY TO SEE WHAT OTHERS DO NOT NOTICE. FEATURES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING, I.E. ABILITY TO PUT PROBLEMS AND SOLVE THEM.
• EMOTIONAL - EXCESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF ONE OF THE SENSES, MOBILE EMOTIONS.
• VOLITIONAL - WILLPOWER, AMAZING COURAGE OR SELF-CONTROL.

INDIVIDUALITY MAY CONSIST IN A PECULIAR COMBINATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF A PARTICULAR PERSON, GIVING A SPECIAL COLOR TO HIS BEHAVIOR OR ACTIONS. INDIVIDUALITY CHARACTERIZES A PERSON IN MORE SPECIFIC, DETAILED AND THUS MORE COMPLETELY.

9 pages, 4439 words

Factors that determine the development of human strength abilities

Department of Weightlifting Sports named after A.S. Medvedeva RGUFKSMIT (GTSOLIFK) MEDICAL-BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF WEIGHTLIFTING (COURSE OF LECTURES) Problem 1. Medical-biological and psychological factors that determine and limit sports activity Lecture 9. The influence of power loads on the body of a weightlifter Professor: Yu.V. Verkhoshansky...

Problems and difficulties that may arise

Problems and difficulties often arise in interpersonal relationships. This is due to the fact that in Russia even a short course in communication culture is not taught. There are situations in which one interlocutor has a culture of communication, and the second does not even know what it is. Communication problems are divided into 2 groups:

1. Subjectively experienced;
2. Objectively experienced.

Each of these groups, in turn, is divided into a primary and secondary subgroup. The primary ones include the discrepancy between the temperaments and characters of the subjects of communication, the secondary ones include the memory of unsuccessful interpersonal relationships.

During communication, people learn a lot of new information, change their mood, share sorrows and joys, and realize themselves. The only way to feel comfortable in any society is to study norms of behavior and improve the culture of interpersonal communication.

Feelings and their role in relationships

Every relationship is built on the basis of certain feelings, which can be both positive (liking) and negative (antipathy). First, feelings and emotions are formed, caused by the external characteristics of a new acquaintance, and only then certain feelings begin to form towards his character traits, his inner essence. Informal relationships between people are often based on feelings that are far from objective. The following factors distort the opinion of one individual about another, which can significantly affect the set of feelings:

• lack of ability to discern the true intentions and motivations of other people;
• inability to objectively and soberly assess the state of affairs and well-being of your interlocutor or just a new acquaintance at the moment of observing his behavior;
• the presence of prejudices and attitudes imposed by oneself or society;
• the presence of stereotypes that prevent one from discerning a person’s true nature (he is a beggar - he is bad, or all women are mercantile, and men are polygamous, and something like that);
• forcing events and the desire to form a final opinion about a person without fully understanding and without knowing what he really is like;
• inability to accept and take into account other people's opinions and reluctance to do this in principle.

Harmonious and healthy interpersonal relationships are built only when each party is able to reciprocate, sympathize, be happy for the other, and empathize. Such contacts between individuals reach the highest forms of development.